Preface: This long essay is a study of emotional rhetoric, NOT LDS theology. As modern Latter-day Saints we often want our pioneer prophets to sound like modern ones, but that expectation is unrealistic. The earliest leaders of this Church were frontiersmen who spoke with a frontier tongue.
We modern LDS have analogous expectations about pioneer congregations. We expect pioneer audiences to be rather sedate and polite in meetings like modern ones, giving only an occasional "AMEN" at the end of prayers and talks. Yet, this modern kind of passive behavior was NOT always true in the beginnings of the Church. In the early Church there was much more audience participation, perhaps because the sermons sometimes were much more fiery.
For this study I have used the Journal of Discourses (abbreviated JD) which is a multivolume record of the primary speeches of pioneer General Authorities of the Church. Scattered throughout hundreds of these recorded speeches are editorial insertions framed by brackets or parentheses in which the editor has described the actions or words of members of the audience while the speech was being given.
I performed a computer search of these speeches looking for the “inserted” comments. Based on this search, a random sample of over twenty quotations was taken from the speeches given between 1852 and 1856 – from the first four volumes of the Journal of Discourses. The point to this exercise was to demonstrate that the "exertive pioneer Mormon personality" is sometimes better revealed within the brackets than within the main text of the speaker. Read the quotations and decide for yourself.
NOTE: In all cases I have bolded the commentary in brackets for ease of identification by the reader. Such emphasis was NOT in the original. Rare non-bolded comments in brackets are mine. Further, with only minor exceptions, the quotations are in chronological order.
WARNING: Readers will discover that when audience reactions were evoked, pioneer speakers often were making extreme or emotionally laden statements. Almost anything could be said, because remarks recorded in the Journal of Discourses were often extemporaneous. Sometimes remarks were made from tempers that had flared.
The quotations listed below contain the energy and tenor of the frontier west. They are NOT always representative of the language and perspectives exhibited in early Mormon rhetoric, let alone that of 21st century Mormons.
Furthermore, the period of history here covered led up to the so-called "Mormon Reformation," and this general period often contained rhetoric that was spiced with emotion, fear of further persecution, and hyperbole built upon hyperbole.
Study of such quotations reminds the modern Latter-day Saint of the pains and anxieties found within the beginnings of the Church. Fortunately, such ills have long-since healed.
Modern Mormonism, contrary to some critical views, is a living dynamic that has adapted to the needs of the present without being rigidly stuck in the past. Readers of this essay should keep this principle foremost in mind.
*****In the following 1852 Conference speech from the "Old Tabernacle" (not to be confused with the extant structure begun in 1864), Brigham Young admitted to the congregation that the Church was experiencing some unusually large debts. Pay attention to Brigham's solution and to the response of the audience.
Brigham Young, JD 1: 52 - 53, April 9, 1852
Will you help us out of this thraldom, and have it credited to your future tithing? There is already a great deal more due than would liquidate all our debts, but we cannot command it now. Do you feel willing to put your shoulder to the wheel, and continue to roll it forward, and still continue, you that have faith to continue, to increase in faith? for the business of this kingdom will increase, and the responsibility also; the labor will and must grow, and continue to increase, until the kingdoms of this world become the kingdom of our God and His Christ. …
It is not for any man to think he is a cipher--that what he can do will not tell in this matter, and say, "They will get along well enough without me;" but it is every man's duty to lay it to heart, and help what he can with his earthly substance; though I wish you to understand distinctly that it is no commandment--you are left to act freely.
… I do not enjoin this upon you, as you have already paid the tithing which is required of you; except in some instances in the money tithing. Had we received the money due to us, we should have had no debts; but this failure has been, and is now, in existence. I will take every kind of spare stock I have, except my cows and sheep, and wipe off these debts until they are cancelled; and now every man who will do the same, let him rise upon his feet. [The whole congregation of two thousand men rose up to a man.] … I would not cripple any man, I would rather give him five yoke of oxen, than destroy his team, and you know it. [Some of the brethren in the stand, not believing their own eyes, that the whole congregation rose, it was tried over again, to satisfy them, when the congregation all rose again to a man.]
Although one could attribute the standing in unison to group pressure, such an explanation ultimately fails. Standing is one thing, but paying the debt is another. The following year, Brigham provided this report to the Church:
Brigham Young, JD 1: 110, May 8, 1853
I now wish to say to the Latter-day Saints that which will be a great comfort to them. We laid before you our Church indebtedness a year ago, last April Conference; it now gives me great consolation to be able to say that every dime of that debt is paid, and money left, enough to answer our purpose at present. [A general expression of satisfaction in the congregation.]
*****It was not unusual for members of the audience to answer rhetorical questions posed in a speech. Consider the following example. Speaking of the sealing keys and endowment of the temple, Orson Pratt wondered what would happen to Latter-day Saints who rejected them.
Orson Pratt, JD 1: 64, August 29, 1852
Now, let us enquire, what will become of those individuals who have this law taught unto them in plainness, if they reject it? [A voice in the stand, "they will be damned."] I will tell you: they will be damned, saith the Lord God Almighty, in the revelation He has given. Why? Because where much is given, much is required … .
In the following speech, Brigham was reacting to some soliciting being done by the Gladdenites in Salt Lake. These missionaries from a splinter group apparently were making a nuisance of themselves. Brigham reacted rather strongly.
Brigham Young, JD 1: 83, March 27th, 1853
We have known Gladden Bishop for more than twenty years, and know him to be a poor, dirty curse. Here is sister Vilate Kimball, brother Heber's wife, has borne more from that man than any other woman on earth could bear; but she won't bear it again. I say again, you Gladdenites, do not court persecution, or you will get more than you want, and it will come quicker than you want it. … I know what they have done here--they have asked exorbitant prices for their nasty stinking ribbons. [Voices, "that's true."] We broke the roads to this country. Now, you Gladdenites, keep your tongues still, lest sudden destruction come upon you.
In the same talk, Brigham referred to a dream about two mobocrats or ruffians who had broken into his home and approached his wife and children. The dream stirred extreme emotions in him, as revealed by this quote:
Brigham Young, JD 1: 83, March 27th, 1853
I say, rather than that apostates should flourish here, I will unsheath my bowie knife, and conquer or die. [Great commotion in the congregation, and a simultaneous burst of feeling, assenting to the declaration.] Now, you nasty apostates, clear out, or judgment will be put on the line, and righteousness to the plummet. [Voices, generally, "go it, go it."] If you say it is right, raise your hands. [All hands up.] Let us call upon the Lord to assist us in this, and every good work.
Early Mormons had become part of the "wild west" culture, and readers should keep that environmental context in mind when reading such speeches. Once Mormon culture had had time to recover from its early persecutions, such language quickly became less acceptable, less evident, and less relevant.
*****Imagine living in 1852 in the middle of a desert valley, barely sustaining a living, and then being asked by a member of the First Presidency to build a rather massive temple.
Heber C. Kimball, JD 1: 162, October 9, 1852
Our temple block is 600 feet square, and according to the number of people that compose the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, we are able to build a temple that size, and do it easier than we built a temple at Kirtland. I put the motion which is before you, that we build a temple of the best materials that can be furnished in the mountains of North America, and that the Presidency dictate where the stone and other materials shall be obtained; and that the Presidency shall be untrammelled from this time henceforth and forever. I want every brother, sister, and child to vote one way or the other. All in favour of this motion raise your right hand. [It was unanimous.]
The temple when finished was indeed about 600 feet square in area – actually ending up as a little larger.
*****The context of the following 1853 quotation was the Salt Lake temple, yet to be built. Brigham Young in the talk declared: "This I do know -- there should be a Temple built here" (JD 1: 132). Moments later he made this prophetic remark: "I have never looked upon that ground, but the vision of it was there" (JD 1: 133).
Brigham Young, JD 1: 136, April 6, 1853
I know what was done at Nauvoo; it was all right. Everything is right with me. There the Twelve were called to lay the North West Corner Stones, if I mistake not. However, it is no matter, they were just as well there, as anywhere else. But to take up the Priesthood in its perfect order and form, you perceive that the Apostleship circumscribes everything in the Church of God on earth. This is the order, and I have endeavored to carry it out before you, that you all might know hereafter, what is the true order, as far as it can be exhibited in the laying of Corner Stones. So far as simply laying a corner stone is concerned, one corner is just as good to me as another.
I will give you the explanation why we proceeded as we have. It was suggested to me, that perhaps the Twelve would feel better to lay the second stone. When I told them the fourth stone was the stone they should lay, it struck my mind that I was ordained an Apostle; and I still belong to the Apostleship; did you ever cut me off, brethren? [Voices in the stand, No.]
*****In some cases the comments from the stands altered the direction of talks. Notice that in the quotes given below that the speakers, Brigham and Heber, assumed everyone in the audience could hear the side-comments as they reacted to it.
Brigham Young, JD 1: 170, July 31, 1853
"Brother Brigham, do you really think we shall ever need them [secure forts]?" YES, I DO. All the difficulties there is in the community this year, is not a drop in comparison to the heavy shower that will come. "Well, and where is it coming from?" From hell, where every other trouble comes from. "And who do you think will be the actors?" Why, the Devil and his imps. [W. W. Phelps in the stand, We could not do very well without a devil.] No, sir, you are quite aware of that; you know we could not do without him. If there had been no devil to tempt Eve, she never would have got her eyes opened. We need a devil to stir up the wicked on the earth to purify the Saints.
Another example is:
Heber C. Kimball, JD 1: 208 - 209, Oct. 8, 1852
I do not care what I am told to do, … ; if I am doing the will of God, if I am doing the will of him who sent me to do it, it is none of my business nor yours. It is for us to do that which we are told to do. … Don't you judge those men--that is for brother Brigham to do; if we need thrashing, he is capable of thrashing us, it is none of your business; and we will sit down and bear it like good fellows, and not move our tongue; if it should move, we will take it between our teeth, and give it a nip, and say, "Stay there, you little fellow." As for the Twelve, and brother Brigham, and brother Willard, they are all men of God; and there never were better men than the Twelve that live in these last days--better men never lived. [A voice in the stand, "True."] It is true, and I know it.
As Heber C. Kimball continued this talk, an "Amen" from the stand seemed to remind him that maybe it was time to end the speech.
Heber C. Kimball, JD 1: 209, October 8, 1852
I love to talk about these things. I love the Saints, they are the pride of my heart. As for the world, its gold or silver, or any thing that pertains to it, my heart is not upon it, but upon this Church and kingdom, and it never will be overcome, worlds without end. [A voice in the stand, "Amen."] Although we may be scattered to the four quarters of the earth, we will gather again, never to be removed any more, henceforth and for ever. Amen.
*****The General Authorities often made comments during each other's talks:
Heber C. Kimball, JD 1: 247, September 23, 1852
I never had any wish, but to do that which is right all the time. Considering the character of my calling, connected as I am and have been with the Prophet, Apostles, and Patriarchs of Jesus Christ, and with holy men of God, I do not consider that anything else but doing right is the character of such a man, it is the nature of his calling and office to be an Apostle, and issue forth the light and truth of God, from this time henceforth and forever. These are my feelings, brother Brigham, all the time. [President Brigham Young, "I know it."]
Heaven forbid that there should ever be a Mormon bachelor. Please note that the commentator, Brigham Young, was not about to be contradicted by Orson Hyde.
Orson Hyde, JD 2: 84, October 6, 1854
There are many living now who are bachelors. I do not complain of the very old men, for they cannot help themselves at all times, but I am going to complain of the old bachelors; and I tell you what it is, if you do not step forward and marry, and try to carry on the great work of Jehovah, it will be left for a better man to do than you. [Voice in the stand, "There is but one old bachelor in the Territory, and he has gone to the States."] O! I beg your pardon; President Young says he does not know of but one old bachelor in all the Territory of Utah, and he has gone to the States; therefore I have nothing more to say on this particular point.
*****Early Utah Mormons had an edgy frontier humor often revealed in Conference talks.
Orson Hyde reported to a Salt Lake Mormon audience that a newspaper editor had asked him how he could believe in Joseph Smith when the Mormon people ended up in an uninhabited salt land (Salt Lake). Hyde gave this retort to his audience:
Orson Hyde, JD 2: 69 - 70, October 8, 1854
Do we have bread, and plenty of it? Yes! We have had fine crops of wheat since the cricket and grasshopper war was over, and our waters are sure, for here we have them flowing down every street, in the midst of summer, and they are not salt waters either, but they are fresh and good. How applicable are these sayings of he Prophet to the Latter-day Saints in Salt Lake Valley. Their habitation is the "munitions of rocks," and they ask no odds of the world, but they are subject to God, who has redeemed this Basin, and put salt enough in it to save us. It is not a dry and barren ground, for we can make it rain when we please, and they cannot in Long Island. The Bible says, "Have salt in yourselves;" we have it here, and if there comes along a villain who is worthy of it, we can salt him up in Salt Lake too. [Laughter.]
*****In the following quote, Orson Pratt speaks of the Law of Consecration, as it was understood in the mid-19th century. The view was that everything was the Lord's. The somewhat insensitive wording in this quote (by modern standards) makes women and children sound like chattel. Unfortunately, the quote lacked the commutative symmetry that men are just as much lent to women as women are lent to men.
Orson Pratt, JD 2: 98, September 10, 1854
In the first place how shall we get at this order? In what manner and by what means shall we begin to lay the foundation of this equality? The Lord has told us, that it is required of every man in this Church to lay all things, not one tenth alone, but to lay all things before the bishop of His Church; consecrate the whole of it--everything he has--his flocks and herds--his cattle, horses, and mules--his gold and silver--his wearing apparel, watches, jewellery, and everything he possesses; consecrate it; not keep back a portion like Annanias and his wife, but give everything--make a full consecration to begin with. [Voice in the stand, "Wives and children."] Yes, give wives and children of course: the wives have given themselves to their husband, and he has to consecrate them; they are the Lord's, He has only lent them to us.
*****It is nice to have a supportive witness, identified by both the speaker and editor, who can verify miraculous claims:
Heber C. Kimball, JD 2: 233 - 234, December 17, 1854
As to the circumstance brother Grant was speaking of in Montrose [Iowa], I was with brother Joseph, and so was brother Brigham and many others, and hundreds were healed, and leaped out of their beds, and followed us. If you do not believe it, call on many of those that were sick nigh unto death at that time, and are now living in these valleys, enjoying good health. … Yes; and there are numbers of people here that were sick nigh unto death, and brother Orson Hyde is a witness that they were just ready to die, and they are now here in a robust state of health. [Orson Hyde, "It is true."] True? Yes, as true as that God reigns in the heavens; and there are thousands more in the Church who know it is true.
*****In the following quotation Brigham Young talked about selling property in order to support the poor of Utah.
Brigham Young, JD 3: 5 - 6, September 16, 1855
I have property for sale, and say, if any man in England, or anywhere else, will expand his heart and loosen his purse strings to buy sixty-two thousand dollars' worth of my individual property, I have it for sale to help the poor. I do not want it destroyed, or to go into the hands of a mob, but I want it to go to the building up of the kingdom of God. I would prefer to let it go into the hands of the Saints, and use it to pay off those who have drafts against me. Here is brother Duel, he has a good house, and there are many others, go and buy their property, and they will take your drafts and hand them to me. [Here many voices were heard in a low tone, saying, "Yes, take my property."] Why do I hear such responses on every side? Because they know me and understand "Mormonism" as they ought. Go and throw out your drafts, it is better for you to do this than to have the money and let it go to destruction, and perhaps you with it.
The actual willingness of the audience to sell portions of property for the benefit of the poor was probably more "good-hearted" than practical.
*****In the following Heber C. Kimball reminisced about the ardors of leaving Nauvoo, Illinois under duress and persecution. He said, "I would rather die, than undergo what I have already undergone in the travel from Nauvoo to this place [Utah], under the same circumstances" (JD: 3: 163). The topic provoked hyperbole, fanfaronade, and high emotions.
Heber C. Kimball, JD 3: 163, February 25, 1855
When we left that city, between one and two hundred souls were attached to me, and looked to me for bread, and I had to travel to this land, when it seemed as though I could not live under the load. And President Young was in the same situation, with another company attached to him, and thus we travelled through sorrow, misery, and death.
Now, if any persons wish to begin another scrape, and desire to again break us up, and to corrupt this people, and to bring death, hell, and the devil into our midst, come on, for God Almighty knows that I will strive to slay the man who undertakes it. [The congregation said, "Amen."]
*****It was not unusual in 1856 to hear speeches with the resound of hellfire and damnation. Brigham Young in this sermon was concerned about Mormon men who were not living their religion and who were working against the "kingdom." Clearly, he was angry and carried away by his emotions. His words are painful to the modern ear, but we should admit they were occasionally expressed on the Utah frontier.
Brigham Young, JD 3: 240, February 24, 1856
Men who love corruption, contention, and broils, and who seek to make them, I curse you in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ; I curse you, and the fruits of your lands shall be smitten with mildew, your children shall sicken and die, your cattle shall waste away and I pray God to root you out from the society of the Saints. To observe such conduct as many lawyers are guilty of, stirring up strife among peaceable men, is an outrage upon the feelings of every honest, law abiding man. To sit among them is like sitting in the depths of hell, for they are as corrupt as the bowels of hell, and their hearts are as black as the ace of spades. I have known them for years; I know where they were begotten and by whom, and how they were brought forth, and the history of their lives. They love sin, and roll it under their tongues as a sweet morsel, and will creep around like wolves in sheep's clothing, and fill their pocket's with the fair earnings of their neighbors, and devise every artifice in their power to reach the property of the honest, and that is what has caused these courts. I say, may God Almighty curse them from this time henceforth, and let all the Saints in this house say, Amen [a unanimous Amen from 3000 persons resounded through the house] for they are a stink in the nostrils of God and angels and in the nostrils of every Latter-day Saint in this Territory.
It may be easy to dish out harsh judgment against such language, but before we do so, let us remember in this modern culture we are still enamored by the World Federation of Wrestling, the bone jarring NFL, and the punishment of kick-boxing in a wire cage. True civilization has yet to be obtained even by us moderns. All things in perspective, the early Mormons built a Deseret Zion largely based in peace and harmony – despite a few verbal blowups.
*****The following speech was given in the Bowery on Sunday, April 6th, a date special to Mormonism. Contrary to modern practice, it was not unusual for the sacrament to be administered in the middle of a speech. In fact, the speaker might keep speaking as the emblems were passed.
Orson Pratt, JD 3: 304, April 6, 1856
If you will be strict to carry out those plans and measures, and constantly hearken to all counsel from the proper source, you will become the richest of all people upon this earth. Why? Is it because this country is so much better than any other? No; but because the people are better calculated to develop the riches of the country than any other people upon the earth; and even if the resources were not half so great, the people here, if they abide counsel, can unitedly turn everything to the best advantage, and thus far surpass other countries of much greater facilities in other respects. [Blessed the sacramental cup.]
The speech continued for several minutes before ending. When Orson Pratt, an apostle and scientist, alluded to a "great microscope" of the devil that "magnified the faults" of neighbors and the "weaknesses and imperfections" of priesthood leaders, Brigham Young shouted out, "[T]hat is the devil's looking glass."
*****In this 1856 talk by Heber C. Kimball, he made reference to a visionary experience of evil spirits obtained during his 1837 missionary service while living on the corner of Wilfrid and Fox Streets in Preston, England.
Heber C. Kimball, JD 4: 2, June 29, 1856
Where will those go to that reject this Gospel? Why, in reality they will not go anywhere. [A voice from the stand: They will not go anywhere else, for they have no other place to go to.] They will remain where they are, in hell, where my spirit was for a short time, when I was in England. Where was my body during that brief period? It was in Preston, on the corner of Wilford-street, but my spirit could see and observe those evil spirits as plainly as it ever will after I die. Legions of disembodied evil spirits came against me, organized in companies that they might have more power, but they had not power over me to any great extent, because of the power that was in and sustaining me.
In the same talk, Elder Kimball complained about the lure of the west coast.
Heber C. Kimball, JD 4: 3, June 29, 1856
Thousands of this world, with large herds of cattle and much substance, are fleeing to California or Oregon to escape the troubles, but they will be caught in the snare. [President B. Young: They will, and they will fall into the pit.]
Further, he complained about some general grumbling in the valley.
Heber C. Kimball, JD 4: 4, June 29, 1856
There are those here who will censure brother Brigham and me, notwithstanding all that we have done for them. [President B. Young: We do not care what they say about us, if they will not steal.] There is but little left in this Territory, so far as bread is concerned. Brother Brigham and I have had to put our families on half rations, in order that we might have wherewith to feed the destitute, and they now say that they feel better than they did before; and I judge, from the testimony that they have given, that it is best to keep them on short rations, for they are fat and fair, and enjoy a good portion of the Spirit of God.
Again, early Mormon talks typically were extemporaneous with few preparations, exposing a stream of consciousness and a flight of ideas. Almost anything could happen in such talks, and Mormon audiences of the time knew it.
*****I am unclear as to the motive of Brigham Young as he engaged in the following exercise. Perhaps he was simply engaging in a method to get the Saints to reaffirm or to recognize their commitments.
Brigham Young, JD 4: 43, September 21, 1856
I feel to call upon this congregation to know whether any of them, or whether all of them wish salvation. If they do, I have the Gospel of salvation for them; and I call upon the people to know whether they are the friends of God, or only of themselves individually. I do not know of any better way to get an expression from the people, as to whether they wish the Gospel preached to them, whether they desire to believe in the Lord Jesus Christ, to obey his counsels, and live to his glory, denying themselves of worldly lusts and of every thing that is sensual and contrary to his Gospel, and feel as though they wanted to be Saints of the Most High, than to have the brethren and sisters, those who so wish and desire, manifest it by rising upon their feet. You will observe all who do not rise. [The vast congregation all responded by standing up.] Take your seats again. You have manifested that you want to be Saints, and I am happy for the privilege of talking to such a people.
*****This last quotation to be given exemplifies the service nature of the Mormon religion that has always existed. When push comes to shove, Mormonism is a religion of "doing."
In October of 1856 the Willie and Martin handcart companies were a significant distance from arriving at the Salt Lake valley. Early snowstorms had made continuing travel by handcart almost impossible. In Conference on the 5th, Brigham Young declared, "[M]any of our brethren and sisters are on the Plains with hand-carts, and probably many are now seven hundred miles from this place, and they must be brought here[;] we must send assistance to them" (JD 4: 113). Heber C. Kimball followed with these words:
Heber C. Kimball, JD 4: 122, October 5, 1856
Now, brethren, what do you say? This is the word of the Lord to us, that we rise up and gather up our teams and start forthwith, not with loads, except feed; take hay and deposit it in different places, so that you can have some when you come back, and bring in those brethren and sisters, and you will have a pleasant time, and God and His angels will go with you, and you will be prospered, upheld, and sustained.
That man that drops down his head under his wife's arm, and says, "I guess they don't see me;" and that wife that says, "O, my husband, I cannot spare you, I cannot sleep alone, for when night comes I shall get cold;" O, the poor little things.
I say that those who will take counsel and prepare themselves to go back on this mission shall be blest; and if a man has but one yoke of cattle, let him put that on with those of some other person.
I now want every man that will actually go and help, and not say he will go, and not go, to rise up.
[One hundred and fourteen teams were volunteered, and reported ready to start forthwith.]
Rescuing these people, as Brigham Young declared, "is my religion" (JD 4: 113).
*****CONCLUSIONS*****Admittedly, not all quotations, discussed above, will comfort and inspire the modern reader. Because of their emotional flavor, one should remember that these quotations are not representative of the entire Journal of Discourses. Further, one must remember that early Mormonism arose under intense persecution. Large communities were driven from their homes in Kirtland, Ohio, Jackson County, Missouri, and Nauvoo, Illinois. Homes were burnt and innocent Latter-day Saints were killed. To understand the fiery rhetoric of early Mormonism, one must remember this overall context.
Mormonism was not founded in passive resistance. Survival of the religion sometimes meant taking a gun in hand. This defensive posture was often reflected in pioneer speech.
Given the extensive problems that these pioneers faced, it is understandable why audience members often shouted out their feelings. In fact, it is remarkable that Mormon meetings did not evolve to take on more of a Pentecostal flavor.
Again, it is worth remembering that NOT every statement from a Church leader establishes binding doctrine. (Please see my previous post: “What constitutes Mormon Doctrine?”).
As controversies and persecutions diminished, Mormon speech evolved over time to become more sedate and serene. Today, the VAST majority of Mormon speech in Church settings appears to be driven by a scriptural precept given in 1831: "Remember that that which cometh from above is sacred, and must be spoken with care, and by the constraint of the Spirit" (D&C 63: 64). Our pioneer ancestors, good people as they were, sometimes learned the wisdom of this advice the hard way. [For that matter, this same conclusion might be applied to some modern LDS bloggers as well -- ;) ].
Civil comments, positive or negative, from readers are welcome.
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